Archaeological methods: what are they?

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Archaeological methods are the techniques employed by archaeologists to study past human civilizations. In the 21st century, diverse methods of archeology include high-tech analysis of archaeological sites with magnetic equipment, electrical sensors, and even satellite photography. For sites in unusual locations, specialized methods such as underwater archeology, urban archeology and salvage archeology are employed. The most common archaeological methods, however, involve the slow removal of relics, remains, and other evidence from sites that have been buried for hundreds or thousands of years. This technique, called excavation, is often done by hand and requires rigorously scientific protocols.

Numerous human civilizations existed before the dawn of recorded history, and even some more recent societies have left little trace of their beliefs, histories or ways of life. All civilizations, however, leave behind physical evidence, including structures and foundations, waste from cities or agricultural areas, and burial objects or other artifacts. Archaeological methods have been refined over the decades to uncover as much data as possible about the societies that left behind this evidence. In the past, archeology was sometimes carried out without the consent of local people, often at the behest of the occupying imperial nations. In modern times, archaeologists attempt to honor the laws of their host governments and any connections these cultures may have had with ancient societies, a method called cultural resource management.

The archaeological methods used in a given case often depend on the location of the site. For example, urban archeology is employed for sites located within modern cities; this method involves disturbing surrounding businesses and homes as little as possible, and coordinating efforts with city government to protect the site during the survey and excavation. If a site is in imminent danger of being destroyed by development, archaeologists will use a faster method called salvage archeology. Underwater archeology requires scientists to understand diving and submersible equipment, as well as the effects of water on soil and artifacts. The recovery of evidence from a buried site, perhaps the best known archaeological method, is called geoarchaeology.

Archaeologists will often examine a probable site through aerial or satellite photography, which can reveal patterns or structures not apparent from ground level. Further examinations may involve ground-penetrating radars, electrical sensors, and magnetic devices such as metal detectors. The method of unearthing a buried site is called excavation; unfortunately, this has the effect of destroying the site. Because so much important information relates to the physical location of the artifacts, archaeologists will only begin excavations after other methods of gathering information have been exhausted. For example, DNA testing of existing local populations can provide insight into the extinction, migration, or maintenance of an ancient society.

Excavation has its own set of well-defined archaeological methods. Archaeologists will first create a grid and detailed map called a site plan, so that each artifact’s location can be accurately documented. The depth of an object within various layers of soil can reveal its age, a process called stratification. Objects can also be identified by the existence of similar objects, a method called typology, or by a chemical analysis of its age called radiocarbon dating. Archaeologists keep very detailed written records, or notes, of any excavations; these notes can be used by future archaeologists to learn more details about the site.

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