Archaeological theories approach historical techniques, evidence, and facts differently. Cultural-historical archaeology posits that each culture is distinct, while process archaeology applies the scientific method to dig sites. Behavioral archaeology focuses on how people behaved, and post-process archaeology encourages excavators to theorize and examine their theories.
Most archaeological theories deal with many of the same historical techniques, evidence, and facts, but approach them differently. Ancient civilizations were just as complex and rich as the civilizations that exist today, which means that there are dozens of different ways to approach and study them. Archaeological theory has always been controversial, slipping from cultural history to process and behavioral archaeology. These methods eventually led to an archaeological theory called post-process archeology.
Experts in the field of archeology have almost always debated which archaeological theory is the more important and more streamlined. Culture-historical archeology developed around 1860, after Darwin’s theories of evolution and natural selection became very popular. Proponents of cultural-historical archeology have theorized that each culture is distinct and separate, with very strict codes of normal behavior. For example, if two pieces of pottery were found at an excavation site, with one having dotted patterns and the other decorated with stripes, a cultural historian archaeologist would assume that the two pieces came from two separate cultures.
The methods of cultural history theory have turned out to be somewhat flawed, though not illogical. This method of archeology posited that all changes and variations within a culture must have resulted from that people’s observation of another culture. The focus has primarily been on why cultures have changed and developed, rather than merely noting that these developments have occurred. Methods for determining trade, movement, and relationships between cultures have been retained from culture-historical archeology and applied to other archaeological theories.
Process archaeological theory developed both within and away from cultural-historical archaeology. Beginning in the 1960s, many archaeologists became aware of what they called the very romantic, one-pointed view they believed cultural historian archaeologists of the past had used in interpreting the data. To counter this, process archaeologists have tried to apply the scientific method to archaeological dig sites, forming unemotional hypotheses about how and why people had lived. This archaeological theory helped excavators look at dig sites more objectively, without putting their own opinions on the pieces of the puzzle, although some found it a cold way of approaching the story.
The theory of behavioral archeology is a sort of offshoot of process archeology. Developed in the 1970s, these archaeological theories looked very objectively at how people behaved. These excavators focused on the actions of ancient people without speculating why they acted the way they did. This method has encouraged archaeologists to form a complete picture of a society and many of its individuals, without making prejudicial judgments.
Post-trial archaeological theories are among the most recently developed theories. In the 1980s, a group of British archaeologists realized that excavators can’t piece ancient cultures together without applying their own images and theories to the pieces. Most post-trial archaeological theories therefore encourage excavators to theorize, within reason, and examine why they think their theories are correct. In this way, archeology has become more of an art than a science.
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