Discourse is a formal expression of thought on a particular subject, studied by various disciplines including linguistics, communication studies, literature, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, and neurosciences. Approaches to discourse analysis include speech act theory, which posits that speech creates an action-reaction dynamic between the speaker/writer and the listener/reader.
Speech is more than casual conversation or a verbal exchange of ideas; represents an extended and formal expression of thought on a particular subject. The many modern approaches to the study of discourse are most often based in the humanities, particularly linguistics, communication studies, literature, and philosophy, as well as humanity-based scientific disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and the neurosciences. Each discipline has its own definition and interpretation of discourse within the context of its subject. Many disciplines, such as linguistics, have multiple and often conflicting theories. The most effective approaches to the study of discourse, therefore, come from the context of a specific discipline.
In 17th-century Renaissance Europe, discourse was seen as a learned discussion, whether written or spoken, about an important topic, especially one that had political, religious, literary, or philosophical implications. The emphasis in the different approaches to discourse of the time was on topical content. Indeed, the term “speech” was essentially synonymous with “thesis” or “treatise”. To study the discourse, one examined the arguments and ideas presented within the discourse or treatise. Far from being archaic, this approach to the study of discourse is alive and well in many disciplines, particularly in literature, philosophy, and political studies.
Early linguists claimed that speech was simply a stretch of language longer than a sentence, but many modern linguists use speech analysis to systematically study the forms and functions of speech. Within those speech traits are, according to the discourse analyst, identifiable governmental regularities or distinct patterns such as fingerprints. Approaches to discourse analysis can include a variety of linguistic behaviors, such as sentence structure, word choice and pronunciation patterns, or things like language encounters and semantic linking strategies. Linguistics has also evolved into a broader and more diverse discipline; interactional sociolinguistics – which, among other things, seeks to understand multicultural contextualization – is only one of the branches that studies approaches to discourse.
Within the social sciences, speech is usually considered a social practice that is distinguished by its intention. Furthermore, speech is not only something said or written, but also assumes both a speaker and a hearer who are, in a sense, objects. In this sense, not only does speech have an object, but it is also directed to or at another object. The form that speech takes can be almost anything spoken or written, including poetry and prose. The speech could include a political speech, a poem, an essay, or even a eulogy.
One of the prevailing approaches to discourse analysis, developed in the 1960s, is speech act theory. Basically, speech act theory posits that when a writer or speaker engages in speech, he or she does something beyond just using words to convey meaning. This “doing something” is not as simplistic as putting pen to paper or making vocalizations and gestures.
Speech act theory is about creating an action-reaction dynamic between the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. For example, effective spoken speech is assumed to have a measurable force that will have a consequential effect on the listener. Sentences, according to speech act theory, do more than say things: they do things.
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