Olfactory receptors are contact sites on cells in the brain and external sensors in insects that process and identify odors. They function by processing smells as a chemical reaction and converting it into a signal that can be read and understood by the brain. Smell is essential for the survival of any organism and plays […]
Serotonin receptor affects well-being, sleep, hunger, learning, and more by releasing neurotransmitters. It is mainly found in the central nervous system and intestines. Serotonin is created from tryptophan, and healthy fats and complex carbohydrates are needed for proper production. Drugs affect serotonin receptors, regulating or overproducing neurotransmitters. The serotonin receptor is a neurotransmitter receptor largely […]
Estrogen receptors are intracellular nuclear hormone receptors that activate messenger RNA transcription and regulate cell proliferation. They are found in cells that target estrogen and play a role in bone growth, cholesterol regulation, and breast and uterine preparation for pregnancy. However, they may also increase the risk of breast and uterine cancer. An estrogen receptor […]
Cytokines are small proteins that regulate immunity and inflammation by binding to specific receptors on target cells. There are many types of cytokines and receptors, with interleukin being the broadest category. Cytokine activity can be blocked by antagonistic molecules that either change the shape of the cytokine or bind to the receptor without activating it. […]
Antigens stimulate an immune response by immune system cells with specific antigen receptors. Antibodies, produced by B lymphocytes, bind to specific antigens. Memory cells can produce antibodies upon re-exposure. T helper cells stimulate antibody production, while T killers kill infected cells and antigens. Any molecule that is recognized by the body as foreign, or not […]
Acetylcholine receptors are transmembrane proteins that bind to acetylcholine and are found in the nervous system. There are two types: nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are ion channels that respond to nicotine and allow cations to flow through the pore, causing depolarization. Muscarinic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors involved in the parasympathetic nervous system and […]
Agonists are chemicals that bind to receptors on cell membranes and influence their activity. They can be endogenous or exogenous, and have varying levels of efficacy. Superagonists elicit a greater response than endogenous agonists, full agonists cause full activation, partial agonists cause partial activation, and inverse agonists cause the opposite effect. Receptor antagonists bind to […]
Histamine receptors are G protein-coupled receptors found on different cell types, stimulated by histamine molecules outside the cell. There are four types of histamine receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4, each causing different reactions within different cells. Antihistamines block the activity of H1 and H2 receptors and are commonly used in allergy and acid reflux […]
Insulin is a hormone that regulates glucose levels in the blood. It binds to insulin receptors on liver cells, activating a series of chemical reactions that increase glucose breakdown, facilitate conversion to glycogen and fat, and inhibit glucose production. Insulin receptors are protein kinases that phosphorylate tyrosine on other proteins, activating enzymes that affect glucose […]
