Surface grinding uses a rotating grinding wheel to remove small amounts of material from an object, creating a flat surface with a uniform finish. Objects are secured to a chuck and moved across the wheel. The process can be vertical or horizontal, depending on the object’s size and the desired precision. Proper object alignment is […]
Impermeable surfaces like pavement and compacted soil prevent water absorption, leading to flooding, reduced groundwater recharge, and increased pollution. They also collect heat and inhibit plant growth. Permeable pavements and floodwater collection can mitigate these issues. An impermeable surface is a surface that cannot be penetrated by water. A classic example of an impermeable surface […]
A surface planer is a tool used to adjust the thickness of a board and make it flat. The machine has a motor that rotates a cutting head, and the board is inserted into the machine and engaged by the feed roller. Snipe is a common problem that can be prevented by properly inserting and […]
Surface drainage systems, such as shallow ditches and open channels, are used to remove excess surface water from soil. They must be planned carefully based on topography, rainfall, and soil type. Maintenance is necessary to prevent silt deposits and erosion. Proper surface drainage prevents soil problems and ensures crops are not waterlogged. In areas of […]
Surface mining is a cheaper method of extracting minerals and metals found near the Earth’s surface, but can have a significant impact on the environment. There are three types: open pit, strip, and quarry mining. The US has established the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement to oversee clearance of surface mines, while in […]
Different types of surface water drainage, such as manholes and French drains, are available for personal and commercial use. French drains are inexpensive, unobtrusive, and effective at preventing erosion and floods. They consist of a gravel trench with a drilled pipe that redirects water to a drainage outlet. Manhole covers are common in cities and […]
Surface plates are flat planes used as a reference for determining flatness and levelness in manufacturing, meteorological, and optical industries. Cast iron was commonly used before mid-20th century, but now granite is the norm due to its non-magnetic and rust-resistant properties. Glass surface plates are rare but were used during metal shortages. All surface plates […]
Surface frying involves cooking small pieces of meat or fish in oil, usually in a pan. The oil is heated to a medium-high temperature, and the food is only partially submerged. Cooking oils with a high smoke point, such as corn or canola oil, are used. Overcrowding the pan can result in soggy, greasy food. […]
Surface finishing is a process used in manufacturing to alter physical or chemical properties of a surface. Surface roughness can be smoothed out through grinding, sanding, buffing, and polishing. Surface properties can be measured using contact or non-contact profilometers and interferometers. Surface finishing is used in various industries to enhance product characteristics and value. It […]
Surface integrity is the properties of a material after manufacturing or modification. It consists of topography and internal surface characteristics. Manufacturing processes can have positive or negative effects on surface integrity, altering material properties permanently. Surface integrity reflects the properties of a material after it has been subjected to some type of manufacturing process or […]
A surface condenser is a heat exchanger used in thermal power plants to convert steam into liquid. It consists of a shell with tubes through which cooling water flows, and vacuum pressure is important for efficiency. The design can have multiple tube bundles or separate sections for maintenance. A surface condenser is a type of […]
Surface thermometers can be used to read surface temperature by direct contact or non-contact methods. They can be purchased from various sources and have different temperature ranges. They are useful in the kitchen for food safety and in manufacturing to monitor equipment temperature. Calibration is important for accuracy. Remote displays and easy-to-read displays are important […]
Surface force, or surface tension, is the upward force that the surface of a liquid exerts on an object. It allows small insects to walk on water and makes water sports possible. Surface force occurs because of the molecules at the surface of a liquid. Adding soap or increasing temperature can decrease surface strength. Surface […]
An attack surface is any area where an unauthenticated user can execute or inject code into a system. It is broken down into three areas: network, software, and human. Attack surfaces can be reduced by limiting functions available to unauthenticated users and giving new employees minimal freedom until they are entrusted with data. However, reducing […]
A surface test scans a hard drive for bad sectors, which can corrupt or lose data. It’s important to identify and mark bad sectors to avoid using them. Regular maintenance tools can prevent serious problems, and it’s important to use reputable software designed for your operating system. A surface test is a scan of a […]
Surface grinders use a grindstone as an abrasive cutting tool to remove small metal chips. They come in two types: planer and rotary. Two types of abrasive material are used in the grinding wheel, and the grinder is suitable for processing hard materials. The surface edger has evolved over time to become more user-friendly, with […]
The Sun’s corona is 300 times hotter than its surface due to nanoflares, which generate temperatures up to 18 million degrees Fahrenheit. The Sun is a near-perfect sphere of hot plasma and is expected to remain stable for another five billion years. You might think there’s nothing hotter than the surface of the Sun, but […]
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering greatly magnifies the weak light signals associated with Raman scattering, allowing for the detection of trace chemical compounds. This effect is achieved when molecules are in contact with metal nanoparticles, causing plasmons to be created on the surface of the metal. This led to the development of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), which […]
Sea surface temperatures are collected by various organizations and can be used for weather forecasting and ocean health studies. Data can be collected through thermometers, observation stations, and weather satellites. The temperature of the ocean impacts weather patterns and can be studied through archived data for extended climate studies and weather modeling. Sea surface temperatures […]
Surface tension is the cohesive force of liquid molecules that allows resistance to external forces. It arises from attraction between molecules, causing a net force of zero within the liquid. Surface tension creates water droplets and bubbles, and is harnessed by some animals. It is measured in dyne per centimeter, which is the force required […]
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