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Nanofabrication involves creating structures with feature sizes below 20 nanometers. Current technology is limited to two-dimensional results, with conventional photolithography being the mainstay of the computer industry. Next-generation lithography techniques include X-ray lithography, electron beam direct writing, and atomic force microscope nanolithography. Molecular self-assembly and positional mechanosynthesis are attempts to bring nanofabrication into the 3D realm, unlocking its technological power. For now, nanofabrication is mostly used to make better computer chips.
“Nanofabrication” refers to the fabrication of structures with feature sizes measured in nanometers, particularly below 20 nanometers on one side. Current technology mainly allows nanofabrication only in a two-dimensional sense. An important subset of current nanofabrication are technologies that fall under the umbrella of nanolithography, which basically just means “writing at the nanoscale” and implies a two-dimensional result. In this sense, conventional photolithography used to make computer chips is also technically nanofabrication, as the size of the features are measured in hundreds of nanometres. However, “nanofabrication” tends to refer to newer, cutting-edge approaches.
Conventional photolithography, the mainstay of the computer industry, can be used to create features as small as 22 nm, although this is very expensive and currently not considered cost-effective. More typically, the models have feature sizes of around 193 nm as the lower limit. In anticipation of hitting physical limitations with photolithography, computer companies have invested billions of dollars in research for next-generation lithography techniques. These include X-ray lithography (15 nm feature size), double patterning (using a low resolution approach but patterning the same surface twice), electron beam direct writing (EBDW) lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, lithography nanoimprint scanning, scanning probe lithography (which can manipulate single atoms), and atomic force microscope nanolithography.
More advanced approaches to nanofabrication are molecular self-assembly, which has been demonstrated in the laboratory hundreds of times, or positional mechanosynthesis, which is in the early stages of research. Both are attempts to bring nanofabrication into the 3D realm, which would really unlock its technological power. Rapid 3D nanofabrication would mean manufacturers could theoretically build a wide range of chemically possible structures with nanometer precision. This could lead to engines that are orders of magnitude more powerful than today, materials with 100 times better strength-to-weight ratios, electronics built into everything, and more. For now, however, nanofabrication is mostly used to make better computer chips.
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