Verbal irony is when there is a contrast between literal and implied meaning. Sarcasm is a harsh form of verbal irony used to insult. Exaggeration and understatement can also be forms of verbal irony. Middle English literature frequently uses understatement as a rhetorical device, such as litotes.
Irony is any situation where there is a contrast between what appears to be and what actually is. In verbal irony, there is inconsistency between the literal meaning – the actual words being spoken and the implied or figurative meaning. Verbal irony can have a wide variety of tones, from lighthearted to bitter, and can be used both in everyday speech and as a rhetorical device in literature.
Sarcasm, which literally means “tearing the flesh” in Greek, is a form of verbal irony, which has harsh undertones, as its etymology suggests. A sarcastic comment is one that says the opposite of what is meant with the intent to hurt or insult. For example, a person might sarcastically comment, “Well, aren’t you a genius?” to a student who has failed a test.
Sarcasm should be distinguished from jokes, which are similar but have humorous rather than offensive intentions. The words “sarcastic” and “facetiously” are often used interchangeably in casual conversation, but they are actually two very different things in tone and purpose. The distinction between the two, however, is often a matter of tone of voice rather than actual words. If someone says “Oh, good job” to a waiter who has dropped a tray, the intention could be harsh or harmless, sarcastic or facetious, depending on the speaker’s inflection.
Exaggeration and understatement can also be forms of verbal irony, especially if done intentionally. An example of intentional exaggeration, sometimes known as hyperbole, might be: “There were mountains of books there!” where “mountains” is obviously an exaggeration. Understatement is a more subtle form of verbal irony and could be expressed with a chuckle. For example, a speaker might comment on the same large amount of books by saying, “Well, it looks like you have some books here.” Either way, what is being said isn’t directly opposed to the actual meaning as it is in sarcasm, but it still doesn’t line up exactly.
Middle English literature makes frequent use of understatement as a rhetorical device. In the anonymous epic poem Beowulf, the speaker says that “not a little company” gathered when Beowulf said he would fight the monster Grendel. This particular type of understatement is known as litotes, which means that something is particularly true by saying that its opposite is not true.
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