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The Upanishads are ancient Hindu texts that follow the Vedas and discuss the relationship between Brahman and Atman. They have been interpreted by various schools of thought and influenced other religions.
The Upanishads are ancient sacred texts that form the final part of Hindu religious thought. The Sanskrit word “Upanishad” literally means to sit at the feet of a master to receive instructions. Chronologically, they follow the Vedas and are often referred to as Vedanta (“veda”, knowledge and “anta”, end or conclusion) for this reason. Of the approximately 108 Upanishads in existence, twelve are considered to be the core teachings. They take the form of dialogues, each of which discusses a metaphysical, moral or teleological theme. Briefly, the thinking in the Upanishads is about Brahman (universal soul) and Atman (individual soul) and the relationship between the two. Brahman is the all encompassing plane of being which acts as the guiding principle of all other existences.
As with any religious text, the exegeses of the Upanishads are many and are informed by diverse metaphysical and religious beliefs; the main commentaries, however, are found in the writings of Shankara, Madhvacharva and Vishishtadvaita. The most salient differences between these various schools are to be found in their view of the metaphysical state of Brahman. Shankara and Madvacharva obviously differ in this respect, the former postulating that Brahman is unlimited and beyond temporal notions of being, while the latter places Brahman in the pantheon alongside deities such as Vishnu and Krishna.
The Upanishads record the thoughts and philosophical musings of a number of Hindu teachers and sages who worked around 1000 BC, but who were especially prominent in 600 BC. It has been speculated that the Upanishads of the earlier period are part of the Brahmanas (commentaries) of their respective Vedas, however they must be distinguished from them because the bias of their investigation is more philosophical and mystical and conversely they pay less attention to the divinity of the Vedas and their associated sacrificial rites.
The influence of the Upanishads is not limited to Hinduism. They are known to have been studied by Jains and Buddhists. Similarly, during the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars such as Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shajahan, were influenced by Hindu philosophy and the Upanishads in particular. He had a number of Upanishads translated into his native Persian. However, it was with the establishment of the British Raj in India and the highly regarded translations made by the German philologist Max Muller that the Upanishads met a large European audience.
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